Experts in Climate, Agro-meteorology and Hydrology from the African Centre of Meteorological Application for Development, AGRHYMET Regional Centre, the National Agency for Civil Aviation and Meteorology of Senegal, representatives of West and Central African countries in charge of monitoring and producing agro-climatic and hydrometeorological information, as well as representatives from basin organisms of the region, met in Dakar(Senegal), from May 04 to 08, 2015 in order to produce seasonal forecasts of agro-hydro-climatic characteristics of the 2015 rainfall season and facilitate their application to food security and water resources management

A season with overall above average rainfall, an early to normal onset and equivalent or above average water levels in most river basins is expected in 2017.

Climate variability and change is regarded as having major impacts on key sustainable socio-economic and environmental indicators in Sub-Saharan West Africa. Because of these concerns, we investigated smallholders knowledge, skills, and aspirations about managing climate change, and document adaptation strategies used in the semi-arid regions coming from Burkina Faso, Chad and Niger. We analyzed climate data from the 1950’s to the present, including daily and aggregated rainfall and temperature variability, trends and extremes.

Climate change is going to affect all aspects of the water cycle. The quantity and distribution of precipitation, the frequencies and duration of droughts, as well as evaporation rates and the water balance at plot level will be impacted by climate change. The African monsoon, which regulates the lives of 300 million West Africans, is evolving: the monsoon’s year-to-year variability will increase, as will the occurrence of extreme rainfall. Agricultural activity will be more or less strongly affected by this change depending on the agro-ecological zone and particular economic activity. The main scientific studies concur: mean annual runoff and groundwater recharge will decrease and competition for water will be exacerbated by growing demand for water by other uses, such as hydro-electric generation. Studies conducted by the African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis (AMMA) are clear in stating that the variability in precipitation both in space and in time will be a real constraint on farm production. Society will need to adapt. Yet we should not underestimate the complexity of any given approach; thus, irrigation schemes should be consulted and agreed upon by all downstream principals and water users involved, even from a neighbouring country. Many methods and their local variations exist to mitigate the vagaries of water availability. Most try to increase production while at the same time reducing dependence on, and vulnerability to, inputs and limiting their negative effects on the environment. Techniques include water saving methods and methods to conserve biomass and soil fertility.

Published late 2013, the latest IPCC report demonstrates that the link between human activities and increasing temperatures observed since 1950 is very likely. These activities are manifested by massive emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Responsibilities are shared unequally between countries, but effects apply to everyone, especially African countries, particularly subSaharan ones. Yet, the African continent as a whole represents only 3.4& of global GHGs emissions and the CILSS/ECOWAS countries all together less than 1& of global emissions. At the global level, since the early 20th century, the temperature of the surface of the earth has increased by 0.8°C and sea levels rose from 19 cm. Each of the last three decades has been successively warmer than all previous decades since 1850! At the level of sub-Saharan Africa, climate changes are also important and disrupt farming activities, backbone of the economy: increase in the frequency of hot days and nights, heat waves, rainfall anomalies (annual and monthly volumes, heavy rains, consecutive dry days, start and end of the rainy season, etc.), increase in extreme weather events, etc. The example of the rainfall is striking: after experiencing an unprecedented drought in the world since the 1970s, West Africa has benefited from increased rainfall since the beginning of the 1990s, but with a strong interannual variability and more frequent episodes of heavy rains. The duration of the rainy season has decreased, while the frequency of flooding has increased. The impacts of climate changes are perceived by the West African populations, but their causes are not well understood. Informing these populations on climate changes, which will grow worse, is therefore an urgent challenge.

Nigeria with a total area of 923,800 sq km occupies about 14& of land area in West Africa. The country lies between 4oN and 14oN, and between 3oE and 15oE. It is bordered respectively in the north, east, and west by Niger, the Cameroon, and Benin Republic, while the Gulf of Guinea, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean, forms the southern border. Most of Nigeria is covered with Pre- Cambrian rocks, but there are also metamorphic and sedimentary rocks of Eocene times as well as volcanic rocks. In general, three types of geologic structures exist in Nigeria, namely, areas of uplift, basins of sedimentation, and isolated volcanic areas. The areas of uplift are made up of the oldest rocks in Nigeria - the basement complex rocks.The basins of sedimentation are the down-warped areas, which were drowned by the sea at different times and in which sediments eroded from the areas of uplift were laid down.

The struggle against desertification and the protection of their natural resources has been a recurring theme since the 1970s in the policy documents of the West African States marked by the droughts of the Sahel. More recently, issues related to adaptation to climate change and its corollaries, how to adapt agriculture and maintain food security, have begun to be discussed even at the subregional level. Thus, many political and/or economic regional groupings of countries have defined strategic programmes or adopted legal instruments that allow them to integrate environmental questions into their action plans. It is not always easy to navigate the various programs and legal instruments. The regional and sub-regional institutions are many and often overlap thematically or geographically. Introduction The first section of this review presents policies and strategies on the environment and agriculture implemented on the African continent and in West Africa by a variety of institutions: the African Union (AU), the African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA), and the Permanent Interstates Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS). However difficult it may be to understand and to coordinate between these regional and sub-regional programmes, their very proliferation affirms the growing importance that the environment and its interdisciplinary nature has come to occupy since the Millenium Summit in 2000, where it was treated in isolation as one of the eight Millenium Development Goals (MDG). However, going beyond mere words, regional and sub-regional institutions, as well as the Member States themselves, have already taken action and have since the early 2000s begun to implement huge field actions involving efforts against desertification and land degradation, sustainable land and water use, reforestation, etc. We present only three field actions in this review but the list is much longer. This clearly demonstrates how the environment has become a cornerstone of sustainable development and a major concern of West African countries

The Medium Term Agriculture Sector Investment Plan (METASIP) (2011 – 2015) has been developed using a largely participatory process and based on FASDEP II objectives with a target for agriculture sector GDP growth of at least 6& annually and government expenditure allocation of at least 10& of the national budget within the plan period. These targets are in conformity with agricultural performance targets of the country’s National Development Planning Commission (NDPC), the ECOWAP of ECOWAS and the CAADP of NEPAD and are expected to contribute significantly to the achievement of the MDGs of the United Nations Organization. As a sector investment plan, emphasis throughout the Plan has been on concerted consultations and actions by all stakeholders of the sector. The key stakeholders include MOFA, other relevant MDAs, DPs, NGOs, academia, civil society, farmers and other on-farm and off-farm private sector operators, researchers and service providers. Agriculture continues to be the largest sector of Ghana’s economy, contributing about 39& of GDP compared to about 26& for the industry sector and 31& for the services sector. Arable and industrial crop production has increased only marginally over the last 10 years with the only exception being cocoa which increased significantly between 2000 and 2005. Cotton and coffee production declined very significantly in the last decade. While there is little reliable information on the livestock sub-sector, it is known that the country’s meat situation is deficit to the tune of over 95,000 metric tonnes annually. There is similarly a deficit of about 460,000 metric tonnes with respect to fish. The identified basic problems of the agriculture sector include: reliance on rainfed agriculture and low level and relatively inefficient irrigated agriculture; low level of mechanization in production and processing; high post harvest losses as a result of poor post harvest management; low level and ineffective agricultural finance; poor extension services as a result of several institutional and structural inefficiencies; lack of ready markets and processing; low performing breeds of livestock; poor feeding of livestock; high cost of feed for poultry; poor livestock housing and husbandry management; competition from imports and poor post-production management of livestock products; over-fishing of natural waters; undeveloped fish value chain (e.g. inadequate supply systems for fingerlings and feed) and lack of skills in aquaculture. Strategies in the Plan to improve agricultural performance therefore focus on investments to address these constraints and to improve agricultural productivity and enhance market access. The six Programmes of the Plan which correspond to the six FASDEP II objectives have each been presented along development themes termed Components. POCC analysis was applied to the development issues of the themes to derive outputs and activities. It is envisaged that the Plan will be implemented by existing structures in the MDAs and other stakeholder organizations and that the Policy Coordinating and Monitoring Unit of the Office of the President and the NDPC will play key oversight roles during implementation. MOFA will xii facilitate the coordination of partnerships at all levels and play a lead role in the monitoring and evaluation of the Plan

Scientific conclusions indicate that the "warming of the climatic system is a reality”, while it is "very likely" that anthropic activities play an important role in temperature rise. Effectively, global temperatures have risen by about one degree since the end of the nineteenth century, while the levels of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere have increased and accumulated by approximately 30& during the same period.

Ghana lies on the south central coast of West Africa between latitudes 4.50N and 11.50N and longitude 3.5oW and 1.3oE. It shares a common border with the Republic of Togo on the east, Burkina Faso on the north and la Cote d’Ivoire on the west respectively. Ghana covers an average area of 238,539 square kilometers. Extensive water bodies including the Lakes Volta and Bosomtwe occupy 3,275 square kilometers while seasonally flooded lakes occupy another 23,350 square kilometers. The territorial waters extend 200 nautical miles out to sea. The country's population is estimated at 19.7 million (1999) and is believed to be growing at a rate between 2.8 and 3.0 percent per annum. The birth rate is estimated at 39 per thousand (1999) while the death rate is estimated at 10 per thousand (1999). The rate of infant mortality is approximately 66 per thousand life births while the overall life expectancy is 59 years (1999). The total fertility rate within the period 1996 to 1999 is estimated as 6.0. All the major rivers in Ghana flow into the sea (see figure 2.4). The only area of internal drainage is found around Lake Bosomtwe, where only streams flow from the surrounding highlands into the lake. The river valleys show diverse characteristics. The valleys of all the major rivers are bordered by terraces showing the former width and height of the rivers. Whilst some of the valleys are guided in their direction by relief (Morago river for example flows east-west along the foot of the Gambaga escarpment) or by structure. The two main sources of water supply for the rivers are rainfall and spring. In areas with single rainfall maximum as in the north, the rivers are intermittent. However, in areas with high and well distributed rainfall within the year, the rivers flow throughout the year. Temperatures throughout the country are typically high. The mean annual temperature is generally above 24ºC, a consequence of the low latitude position of Ghana and the absence of high altitude areas. Average figures range between 24 and 300C although temperatures ranging from 18 to 40ºC or more are common in the southern and northern parts respectively. Spatial variability of temperature is experienced in terms of the diurnal and annual ranges as a result of distance from the modifying influence of the sea breeze. Generally rainfall in Ghana decreases from south to north. The wettest area is the extreme southwest where annual rainfall is about 2000mm. In the extreme north, the annual rainfall is less than 1100mm. The driest area is the wedgelike strip from east of Sekondi-Takoradi, extending eastward up to 40km where the annual rainfall is about 750mm. The dry conditions in the southeastern coastal strip are anomalous and are the cause of important differences in ecology and landuse from the rest of the country. Ghana is classified as a developing country with a per capita income GDP of US$ 390 (1996). Agriculture and livestock constitute the mainstay of Ghana’s economy, accounting for 25.4& of GDP in 1996. Although cocoa is perhaps the country’s best known crop, other food crops and livestock are by far the most important contributors to agricultural output and alone make up around 25& of GDP (1996). 2 Agriculture and livestock employs 55& of the economically active population. It is predominantly small holder, traditional and rain-fed, with 85& of the country’s 1.8 million farms being smaller than 2 hectares. Only about 12& of Ghana's land area (28, 680km2) is classified as arable or permanently cropped land. Cocoa is the main cash crop and is grown on 40& of the cropped land. It accounts for about 75& of agricultural exports. Other commercially important tree crops are oil palm, coconut palm, rubber, kola and robusta coffee. The strong dependence on agriculture for economic development is of great concern with respect to potential climatic changes. Since almost all the national agricultural production is based on rainfall, the country’s agricultural output is directly influenced by weather patterns. During periods of severe drought crop production and livestock herds decline quite significantly. The severe food shortage experienced in the country in the early 1980's is a clear testimony of the dependence of the country's agriculture on climate change

On behalf of the Government and people of the Republic of The Gambia, it is a great honour and pleasure for me to present this First National Communication of The Gambia to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The development of this First National Communications has enabled my Department of State to develop an institutional framework that has brought together and consolidated the networking and dialogue between different economic sectors, CBOs and NGOs, and grassroots level communities. Technicians and scientists of different backgrounds and disciplines have pooled their expertise and worked together to develop this informative document. In this National Communication we have outlined the emissions of greenhouse gases from the major economic sectors and activities of the country, developed plausible climate change scenarios and based on these scenarios we have assessed the potential impacts of the projected climate change. The National Communication also contains measures and strategies to mitigate the concentration of greenhouse gases in the global atmosphere and adapt to the negative impacts of climate change. No detailed cost-benefit analysis was conducted on the mitigation and adaptation measures due to inadequate capacity to cost the effects of climate change. The potential impacts of climate change on crop production, biodiversity and wildlife, coastal resources, forestry, fisheries, rangelands and livestock, and water resources have been studied in great detail. Most of the impacts are negative and the populations are vulnerable. Although The Gambia is a small country, there are opportunities to invest on small-scale projects to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to adverse impacts of climate change. These projects would be in policy development, fuel switching including the efficient use of both renewable and non-renewable energy, use of efficient modes of transportation and conservation and sustainable use of forests. Cooperation between developed countries and The Gambia will enable all Parties to meet their commitments based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibility. The mitigation and adaptation measures presented in this first national communications will require funding to build national adaptive capacity and provide appropriate technologies to address climate change.

C’est évident, le fait que d'une certaine période jusqu'à présent on constate des altérations profondes dans les cycles globaux de la Planète, qui se trouve en crise et souffre des changements considérables, tout en présentant une atmosphère différente de celle de il y a quelques années. Ces changements se trouvent directement relationnés avec l'accumulation de certaines substances toxiques capables de fragiliser le système écologique. Face à l'évidence de que l'environnement global se trouve sous une forte pression des activités humaines, il existe aujourd'hui un vaste consensus dans la communauté scientifique et parmi les responsables politiques mondiaux qu'il est possible, que ces activités contribuent pour un changement climatique global sans précédents, car les émissions de gaz à effet de serre, en particulier, le dioxyde de carbone (CO2), chloroflucarbures (CFCs), méthane (CH4), hémioxydes d'azote et autres, sont en train de renforcer l'effet de serre naturel de l'atmosphère, pouvant éventuellement provoquer un réchauffement global dans la superficie de la Terre. . Le problème relatif aux conséquences dont la Planète peut se confronter avec l'augmentation continuelle de la concentration du dioxyde de carbone dans son atmosphère, avec l'émission sans contrôle des pollutions tel que le dioxyde de soufre (SO2), le méthane (CH4), les oxydes d'azote (NOx), les poussières et les fumées provenantes des activités industrielles et de la circulation des voitures, et autres gaz à effet de serre, il devient urgent que des mesures de correction soient prises et qu'elles puissent limiter et contrôler l'émission de ces gaz, définir des politiques concernant l'environnement adéquates à la réalité des pays visant le développement soutenu, effectiver la transférence nécessaire de technologies environnementales, former et informer les communautés des besoins d'utilisation de pratiques plus correctes qui puissent nous conduire à une gestion plus adéquate de l'environnement, et de mieux résoudre le problème d'appui et de renforcement institutionnel, aussi bien que la surveillance continuelle, les recherches et l'investigation systématique. Signée en juin 1992 dans la «Sommet de la Terre», à Rio de Janeiro, la Convention Cadre des Nations Unies sur les Changements Climatiques (CQNUMC) a pour finalité la stabilisation des concentrations de gaz à effet de serre (GEE) dans l'atmosphère à des niveaux qu'exigent des précautions en ce qui concerne l'interférence anthrope dans le climat de la Terre. La ratification par le Cap Vert de la CQNUMC a été en mars 1995 et elle est entrée en vigueur le 22 juin 1995. Prenant ça en considération, dans la condition de partie contractuelle de la Convention, le Cap Vert s'est engagé à cette date avec le compromis de formuler une Communication Nationale à la Conférence des Parties (CdP). Pour l'élaboration de la Communication Nationale du Cap Vert, on a tenu compte des différentes études effectuées dans les différents secteurs concernant des inventaires des GEE, l'analyse de vulnérabilité et adaptation et l'analyse de mitigation. La Communication Nationale montre la réalité capverdienne dans son processus de développement, ses problèmes de vulnérabilité et leur possible adaptation, rapporte toutes les procédures concernant l'émission de gaz à effet de serre dans les différents secteurs, elle projette des scénarios d'émission, propose des politiques et des mesures d'atténuation, et fait l’analyse des besoins de base concernants les ressources techniques et financiers pour le développement et la mise en œuvre du PNM (Plan National de Mitigation), aussi bien que le besoin d'assistance technique des organisations internationales visant l'identification et la définition d'une stratégie pour l'aboutissement du PNM.

For decades the international scientific community warned about the likely negative impacts of human activities on the equilibrium of ecosystems and global climate. Today it has been proved that the cause of global warming, which has been observed over the last fifty years, is anthropogenic, rather than natural. The weather events that occur (recurring droughts, frequent flooding, high winds, heat waves, rising sea levels, among others), initially predicted by scientists to occur at the end of the 21st century, is already becoming more frequent in several regions of the world with serious consequences for the survival of many societies.

Already handicapped by increasing land pressure and continued land degradation, West African farmers face an additional challenge: to adapt their farming practices to climate changes. In West Africa, these changes should lead to increased water stress, the extension of arid areas and, ultimately, lower crop yields (IPCC, 2013). Cereal yields are expected to fall by 10 to 15& by 2025, while 20& of the population is already structurally vulnerable and food crises are regular (CILSS, 2013). The situation is difficult, but simple and effective techniques can be implemented to adapt farming practices. This means that, with few resources, the farmer may be able to improve its yields, while preserving its natural capital (the soil), and taking into account the future climate changes in West Africa. This involves making the best use of agricultural water, using collection techniques that aim at maintaining as long as possible the water in the fields. It also means combatting erosion due to the wind or heavy rains, introducing physical barriers in the fields. Finally, this implies to better manage physical and chemical soils properties, in order to maintain or restore their fertility. These techniques must be implemented in a complementary manner. Despite having shown very good results at plot level, their widespread adoption remains a challenge for West Africa. Restoration costs of degraded land in the CILSS/ECOWAS countries demonstrate the importance of this challenge: up to 100 million US$ per country (CILSS, 2013)

Climate change is among the most serious threats confronting every person on the entire planet, and African populations are particularly vulnerable. All livelihoods suffer from the isolated or combined effects of many climate hazards that can negatively affect their productivity, and consequently food security and populations’ living conditions. Therefore, seeking to reduce the harmful effects of climate hazards relates directly to the fight against poverty. Reducing poverty and promoting human development depend in part on the reduction of greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere to prevent climate change (mitigation). But given that climate change is already happening and will continue to do so because of current and still-rising levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, it is also necessary to develop robust ways for natural and human systems to adjust in the face of future climate change effects (adaptation). Discussions on climate change now recognize that in addition to efforts to mitigate the phenomenon, strategies to enhance adaptation are a priority. This recognition has led to the unprecedented proliferation of many initiatives (projects, programs and policies) that relate climate change to development efforts. These initiatives, however, have so far hardly generated the expected outcomes. The disappointing results are due, in part, to the approaches and tools that were used to identify, plan, monitor and evaluate the initiatives. A study undertaken by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (Somda, 2010) on the shortcomings in the fields of monitoring and evaluation shows that these approaches are not sufficiently harmonized; they do not permit the drawing of consistent lessons that could improve the relevant formulation and implementation of new initiatives for climate change adaptation. This publication aims to resolve this issue by offering insights into harmonized approaches and tools for identifying, planning, monitoring and evaluating climate change adaptive capacities. It presents the theoretical approach and includes a practical users’ guide intended for development professionals, researchers and policy-makers. It contains a toolkit that harmoniously combines a number of existing approaches and tools for use at various intervention scales, and in this way defines a vision and a behavioural change strategy that are essential in the climate change adaptation process.

More than in other places, millions of people in West Africa depend in large part on natural resources which continue to deteriorate. Each year more than 4 million ha of forest are lost in Africa and 80& of the forests in West Africa disappeared in the last century (FAO, 2010). 34 countries like Angola, Ethiopia, Gabon, and Mali continue to suffer a loss of biodiversity (UNEP, 2008). Genetic erosion in sub-Saharan Africa is accelerating and local food-producing seeds are disappearing at an alarming rate (FAO, 2012). Soil degradation affects almost 500 million people in Africa and two thirds of the arable land is exposed to degradation. The situation concerning water resources is just as troubling. Introduction The first part of this report gives a brief overview of the principles and mandates of the UNCBD and its two Protocols, Cartagena and Nagoya, and then presents its main bodies. The second section introduces how far the UNCBD has been implemented and discusses specific aspects of agrodiversity and bio-security in the African context, then at the sub-regional West African level, and finally at the level of the individual countries of West Africa. Never before have the humid zones and the bodies of water in West Africa been under such a strain. The area covered by Lake Chad, for example, has fallen from 25,000 ha to only 2,500 in 40 years. The direct pressures are aggravated by changes in the climate whose effects will be all the more damaging because West Africa is already so vulnerable. The objective of UNCBD and its additional Protocols of Nagoya and Cartagena is to maintain biological diversity, stop genetic erosion and ensure a just and equitable sharing of the benefits from the use of genetic resources. Nevertheless, while humanity is going through its 6th biodiversity crisis, the objective for 2010 – reduce the rate of biodiversity loss – has not been achieved and the national implementation of UNCBD’s measures remains limited in West Africa.

After the publication of the Brundtland Report in 1987, alerting the international community about the dangers of global changes, including climate changes, the Intergovernmental Panel of Experts on Climate Change (IPCC) is established in 1988. Soon after, at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, the UNFCCC is created. It adopts an armed wing in 1997, the Kyoto Protocol, which enters into force in 2005. The first commitment period of the Protocol (2008-2012) did not address the issue, covering less than a third of global Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions and setting a modest target in terms of GHG emissions reduction (-5.2& in 2008-2012 compared to 1990). The opposition of the United States to any reduction of their GHG emissions ("The American way of life is not negotiable!" - George Bush, 1992) has often been put forward to explain the low ambition of the Protocol. The reality is less simple: the climate negotiations involve more than 190 countries with diverse interests and have become complex, far exceeding climate and abuting on geopolitical or even philosophical issues. This Protocol was supposed to be strengthened in 2009 at the Climate Conference in Copenhagen. Political tension was high before this Conference: "No plan B in case of failure" (Barroso, 2009). Five years later, the Plan B is still under negotiation... Agreeing on a multilateral treaty on the post2020 climate regime - by 2015 at the COP21 in Paris - is even more urgent that all signals are red, as evidenced by the last IPCC Report (2013). In addition, the last to pollute will be the first affected: developing countries that have low GHG emissions compared to industrialised countries already bear the brunt of the effects of climate change and will suffer even more. In this context, the West African countries ardently defend their positions: • Applying the principles of "Common But Differentiated Responsibility" (CBDR) and "Transparency" and asking the developed countries to be exemplary; • Increasing greatly climate finance in particular for adaptation; • Integrating agroforestry in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM); • Operationalising the “Loss and Damage Mechanism”.